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1995-05-02
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----- The following copyright 1991 by Dirk Terrell
----- This article may be reproduced or retransmitted
----- only if the entire document remains intact
----- including this header
Lecture #14 "The Red Planet"
Observations of the phases of Venus by Galileo placed considerable doubt
on the validity of the Ptolemaic solar system that had the Earth at the
center. Kepler's detailed calculations of the orbit of Mars destroyed it for
good. Since that time, Mars has been a source of fascination for us
Earth-bound creatures. Why Mars? It isn't particularly bright in the sky
most of the time, although at some oppositions (when the planet is directly
opposite the Sun in the sky, like the moon when it is full)it can be
brighter than Jupiter, such as the spectacular 1988 opposition. Mars is so
popular, I think, because it is the most Earth-like of all the planets.
Perhaps we are so enthralled by it because we know that someday we will live
there.
A day on Mars is 24 hours, 37 minutes, and 23 seconds long, which is very
close to the Earth's day 23h 56m 4s. It has polar ice caps. There are
seasons on Mars. There are clouds in the Martian sky (although Mars
observers think that is an UNFORTUNATE similarity with Earth!). The surface
has markings on it. Indeed Mars is similar to Earth in many ways. But, it is
also different in some very dramatic ways.
Mars has a rich observational history. The first person to turn a
telescope on Mars was Galileo (I bet you were surprised by that!). In 1659,
Christian Huygens, following surface features, measured the rotation period
of Mars. About 100 or so years later, William Herschel measured the rotation
period, and his value was different from the one accepted today by only 14
seconds. Around the turn of this century, Percival Lowell built an
observatory, and dedicated himself to observing Mars. To date there have
been 13 unmanned probes successfully sent to the planet by the US and USSR.
They are as follows:
Spacecraft Country Date Type of Mission
Mariner 4 USA 7/65 Flyby
Mariner 6 USA 7/69 Flyby
Mariner 7 USA 8/69 Flyby
Mariner 9 USA 11/71 Orbiter
Mars 2 USSR 11/71 Orbiter/Lander
Mars 3 USSR 12/71 Orbiter/Lander
Mars 4 USSR 2/74 Flyby
Mars 5 USSR 2/74 Orbiter
Mars 6 USSR 3/74 Lander
Mars 7 USSR 3/74 Lander
Viking 1 USA 6/76 Orbiter/Lander
Viking 2 USA 9/76 Orbiter/Lander
Phobos 2 USSR 1/89 Orbiter/Lander
Lowell was convinced that Mars was inhabited by intelligent beings who
constructed canals to bring water from the polar ice caps to the dry
deserts. Earlier, the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped what
seemed to be straight lines on the surface. He called these "canali", which
was subsequently mis-translated as "canals." The proper translation should
have been "channels." I have on several occasions seen these straight lines
myself. They do exist. Unfortunately, as Carl Sagan has said, they ARE a
sign of intelligence, but the intelligence is on the eyepiece end of the
telescope, not the objective. The eye and brain, straining at the limits of
detection, will take scattered information and try to put it together into a
more manageable form. The lines are created by our brains. Not that this is
a bad thing. I mean, without this process, trying to watch television would
be hopeless. All we would see is a bunch of red, green, and blue dots.
The arrival of Mariner 4 showed that there were no canals on Mars. The
problem was solved. But as has been the case with every mission I can
remember, more questions were raised than were answered. Mariner discovered
a cratered terrain very similar to the moon. Mariners 6 and 7 also showed
such terrain, although the pictures were not terribly clear. Mariner 9, on
the other hand, showed some amazing features very clearly. It took pictures
of a large volcano (the largest in the solar system in fact), an immense
canyon, and a vast network of dry riverbeds. The volcano, called Olympus
Mons, has a base diameter of about 600 km and stands 27 km high. The
volcanic crater (caldera) itself is 80 km across. No matter how you look at
it, that's a big volcano! (Mt. Everest is only about 9 km high.) The canyon
on Mars is pretty big too. The Grand Canyon is a hairline fracture compared
to this. The canyon, called Valles Marineris, is about 4000 km long, up to
700 km across, and 7 km deep. The Grand Canyon lengthwise could fit across
the width of Valles Marineris. The name of the canyon deserves some comment.
Since it was discovered in photographs taken by Mariner, people thought that
Valles Marineris, or "Mariner Valley" in Latin since Martian features are
given Latin names, would be appropriate. The IAU agreed and the name was
officially adopted. Sometime later, however, someone pointed out that Valles
Marineris means "marinated valley" Latin, not "mariner valley." So I guess
all the dry river beds were really carved by vinegar and melted butter.
The atmosphere of Mars is much less dense than that of Earth, and, like
Venus, is compsed primarily carbon dioxide. The surface pressure on Mars is
about 150 times less than on Earth, while you will recall that Venus'
atmosphere is about 90 times heavier. Thus, while Mars is similar to Venus
in having a carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere, its relative thinness makes
the Martian greenhouse effect rather small. The global mean surface
temperature is a rather chilly -53C (-63F). However, during the summertime,
the local temperature can get as high as 22C (72F). The Martian atmosphere
can also get quite active, with large dust storms that can be seen from Earth.
Mars has two moons, which were discovered by Asaph Hall during the
favorable opposition of 1877. Named after the attendants of Mars in the
Illiad, Phobos ("Fear") and Deimos ("Dread"), these moons are mere rocks
compared to our moon. On average, Phobos is 21 km across, while Deimos is 13
km across. Some planetary scientists think that these moons may, in fact, be
captured asteroids.